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A possible effect of male age on the . Recombination between the X and Y chromosomes and the Sxr - PubMed doi: 10.1016/s0035-9203(02)90380-9, Perez-Crespo, M., Pintado, B., and Gutierrez-Adan, A. Sci. (1993). 17, 221228. Genet. However, less is known about the ability of sperm carrying either sex chromosome to withstand environmental stress. We would also like to thank all present and former lab members for helpful discussions. AFM is highly specific as it provides detailed three-dimensional information of cells and is suitable for imaging the cell surface. Sci. These findings suggest that X and Y spermatozoa may exhibit differences in their electrophobicity. Differential binding of X- and Y-chromosome-bearing human spermatozoa to zona pellucida in vitro. R. Soc. Therefore, it is tempting to speculate that no or non-significant differences exist in the shape and size of X and Y spermatozoa. Trends in population sex ratios may be explained by changes in the frequencies of polymorphic alleles of a sex ratio gene. doi: 10.1002/mrd.20022, Song, W. H., Mohamed, E. A., Pang, W. K., Kang, K. H., Ryu, D. Y., Rahman, M. S., et al. Domest. (2014). Therefore, these cells are extremely suitable for performing proteomic analysis. 16, 492494. Determination of the parent of origin in nine cases of prenatally detected chromosome aberrations found after intracytoplasmic sperm injection. The difference between the reported aneuploidy rate in X and Y chromosomes remains unclear even though aneuploidy was detected using similar methods (i.e., 3-color FISH coupled with chromosome-specific probes and epifluorescence microscopy) in all the cases. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-0436.1984.tb01416.x, Schmidt, W., Jenderny, J., Hecher, K., Hackeloer, B. J., Kerber, S., Kochhan, L., et al. Steril. Schematic drawing of the process of various events in male germ cells during spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis. Johnson, L. (1994). (2009). Clin. Grant, V. J. Full article: Cellular mechanisms regulating synthetic sex ratio The origin and maturation of both X and Y spermatozoa are the same, however, certain differences may exist. Reproduction 149, R265R277. (2012). doi: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2795(199908)53:4<407::aid-mrd6>3.0.co;2-o, Hassold, T., Abruzzo, M., Adkins, K., Griffin, D., Merrill, M., Millie, E., et al. Endocrinol. Detection of X- and Y-bearing human spermatozoa after motile sperm isolation by swim-up. Previous studies mostly used non-specific comparative methods such as identification of Barr bodies and F bodies, which have low sensitivity in differentiating between X and Y spermatozoa, thus making the findings of these studies (i.e., X spermatozoa are larger than Y spermatozoa) less reliable. Dev. doi: 10.1002/mrd.1080340311, Hassanane, M., Kovacs, A., Laurent, P., Lindblad, K., and Gustavsson, I. Mol. Analysis of the primary sex ratio, sex chromosome aneuploidy and diploidy in human sperm using dual-colour fluorescence in situ hybridisation. (1998). In another recent study, Scott et al. Thus, the difference in the size of X and Y spermatozoa may be due to the variations between X and Y chromosomes. doi: 10.1126/science.1219969, Smith, J. L., Garry, V. F., Rademaker, A. W., and Martin, R. H. (2004). doi: 10.1530/REP-14-0613, Iizuka, R., Kaneko, S., Aoki, R., and Kobayashi, T. (1987). Characterizing semen parameters and their association with reactive oxygen species in infertile men. doi: 10.1002/mrd.1080340105, Van Dyk, Q., Mahony, M. C., and Hodgen, G. D. (2001). The decreased viability of Y spermatozoa was mostly associated with the increased expression of apoptotic proteins in live Y spermatozoa (You et al., 2017), which subsequently affects the overall lifespan (You et al., 2018). Table 1. Steril. For example, low pH, high temperature, and increased oxidative stress retarded motility in Y spermatozoa, whereas motility of X spermatozoa rapidly declined when spermatozoa are incubated in a high-pH condition (Shettles, 1970; Oyeyipo et al., 2017). 206, 351355. Fertil. Biol. Scrotal heat stress effects on sperm viability, sperm DNA integrity, and the offspring sex ratio in mice. It comprises autosomes and an X (X spermatozoa) or a Y chromosome (Y spermatozoa). Androl. doi: 10.1002/biot.200900211, Mocarelli, P., Gerthoux, P. M., Ferrari, E., Patterson, D. G. Jr., Kieszak, S. M., Brambilla, P., et al. Comparison of detergent-solubilized membrane and soluble proteins from flow cytometrically sorted X- and Y-chromosome bearing porcine spermatozoa by high resolution 2-D electrophoresis. Science 308, 14661469. 1:7. Introduction to Sperm Sexing | SpringerLink Dev. Alminana et al. A., Kwon, W. S., Saidur Rahman, M., Park, Y. J., Kim, Y. J., and Pang, M. G. (2017). 265, 42274232. 9, 12651270. Identification of subtle differences between X and Y spermatozoa is the only way to assess the preselection of a babys sex. Hum. (2014a). During this journey, the morphology and chemotaxis of spermatozoa and ionic factors, protein phosphorylation (especially tyrosine), ATP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, protein kinase-A (PKA), enzymatic factors, seminal plasma factors, and calcium ions present in spermatozoa play a dynamic role in keeping the spermatozoa motile (Kwon et al., 2014b; Rahman et al., 2017b, 2018). Separation of human X- and Y-bearing sperm using free-flow electrophoresis. 23, 165166. Copyright 2020 Rahman and Pang. BMC Genomics 17:577. doi: 10.1186/s12864-016-2979-5, Rahman, M. S., Lee, J. S., Kwon, W. S., and Pang, M. G. (2013). Differential protein profile in sexed bovine semen: shotgun proteomics investigation. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0531.2003.00410.x, Lobel, S. M., Pomponio, R. J., and Mutter, G. L. (1993). Y/X-Chromosome-Bearing Sperm Shows Elevated Ratio in the Left but Not the Right Testes in Healthy Mice Life (Basel). Int. Dev. doi: 10.1039/c3mb70306a, Diasio, R. B., and Glass, R. H. (1971). (2019). Interestingly, the same study also reported higher sex chromosome aneuploidy, however, the aneuploidy was observed in the entire sperm pellet (Pfeffer et al., 1999). Elife. For example, L-lactate dehydrogenase A and testis-specific glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, which are highly expressed in X spermatozoa, are found to be functionally associated with breast neoplasm and cervical carcinoma (Figure 2). 25, 41314141. Woldrich, J. M., Mallin, K., Ritchey, J., Carroll, P. R., and Kane, C. J. 75, 4047. 2013:360986. doi: 10.1155/2013/360986, Rathje, C. C., Johnson, E. E. P., Drage, D., Patinioti, C., Silvestri, G., Affara, N. A., et al. Effect of endocrine disruptors on the ratio of X and Y chromosome-bearing live spermatozoa. The difference in the ability of the X or Y spermatozoon to respond to these factors and processes will make it more active and motile than the other sperm type. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that exposure of spermatozoa to external stress results in their differential survival; however, it is unclear whether stress provides selective survival advantage to X or Y sperms. Reprod. 35, 951961. Biol. Functional and proteomic alterations of F1 capacitated spermatozoa of adult mice following gestational exposure to bisphenol A. J. Proteome Res. The term chromosome comes from the Greek . J. Androl. The Ratio of X- and Y-Bearing Sperm in Ejaculates of Men with Three or Ruder, A. doi: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.7b00668, Rahman, M. S., Kwon, W. S., Yoon, S. J., Park, Y. J., Ryu, B. Y., and Pang, M. G. (2016). Genet. Agarwal, A., Sharma, R. K., Sharma, R., Assidi, M., Abuzenadah, A. M., Alshahrani, S., et al. 4:66. doi: 10.20517/2394-5079.2018.87, Xia, Y., Cheng, S., Bian, Q., Xu, L., Collins, M. D., Chang, H. C., et al. 19, 570580. doi: 10.1159/000472431. Functional human sperm capacitation requires both bicarbonate-dependent PKA activation and down-regulation of Ser/Thr phosphatases by Src family kinases. doi: 10.1002/mrd.1080350213, Hendriksen, P. J., Welch, G. R., Grootegoed, J. Cell Genet. (2012) reported increased levels of tubulin isoforms 3 and 4B in X spermatozoa. Sex determines the expression level of one third of the actively expressed genes in bovine blastocysts. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(00)00368-1, Brandriff, B. F., Gordon, L. A., Haendel, S., Singer, S., Moore, D. H. II, and Gledhill, B. L. (1986). 50, 323327. During sperm storage in the cauda epididymis, a slightly acidic pH is maintained. Jpn. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.3.1764, Leblond, C. P., and Clermont, Y. Sperm bioenergetics in a nutshell. Duration of spermatogenesis in the mouse and timing of stages of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. Genet. 110(Suppl. Reprod. Mol. Genet. Behav. Nature 246, 421424. Int. Understanding the molecular basis of sperm capacitation through kinase design. 89, 176180. A., Park, Y. J., Oh, S. A., Kim, D. S., and Kim, Y. J. doi: 10.1038/168697b0. Effect of highly bioaccumulated polychlorinated biphenyl congeners on estrogen and androgen receptor activity. 34, e422e434. (2014) reported a non-significant difference in the motility of X and Y spermatozoa. Some of these genes (particularly receptors) are also shown to be related to the growth, survivability, and functions of specific sperm types (Umehara et al., 2019). 105, 234244. Mature spermatozoa undergo minimal transcription (there are few ribosomes, so translation is not possible) as well as protein synthesis (Kwon et al., 2014a, 2015). Fertil. (1995) and Hoegerman et al. (2003) reported a significant increase in female blastocysts when bovine spermatozoa were preincubated for 24 h. In accordance with these findings, recently using an in vitro experimental design, we also demonstrated that human Y spermatozoa are more susceptible to stress then X in vitro, induced by variation of culture condition (You et al., 2017). Proteomic profile of sex-sorted bull sperm evaluated by SWATH-MS analysis. 17, 4756. Mol. Natl. (2001). Several researchers have concluded that the variation in DNA content between X and Y spermatozoa may affect their motility and swimming pattern (Johnson et al., 1989; Johnson, 1994), however, the results of these studies are not conclusive. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.07.1295, Zhu, J., Barratt, C. L., Lippes, J., Pacey, A. Hum. 217, 93102. In this section, we review the evidence of sex chromosome abnormalities or aneuploidy, which leads to male reproductive dysfunction. Steril. doi: 10.1038/337373a0, Carvalho, J. O., Silva, L. P., Sartori, R., and Dode, M. A. Short-term storage and swim-up selection do not affect the X/Y ratio in equine spermatozoa. Individual variation of the percentage of Y-chromosome bearing sperm In addition, Hossain et al. Am. 69, 253259. (1993). 2, 937942. A 41, 466474. Eventually, by the process of several mitotic cell divisions, type Al spermatogonia become type B spermatogonia (Leblond and Clermont, 1952; Oakberg, 1956). Immunol. A neofunctionalized X-linked ampliconic gene family is essential for male fertility and equal sex ratio in mice. Environ. (2005) reviewed 23 studies and found that the average sex chromosome disomy (presence of an extra chromosome in a haploid state) in human spermatozoa was 0.26%. Int. doi: 10.1017/s0021932000015467, Jasin, M., and Zalamea, P. (1992). doi: 10.1038/246308a0, Bermejo-Alvarez, P., Rizos, D., Rath, D., Lonergan, P., and Gutierrez-Adan, A. Hendriksen et al. Literature searches indicated that limited studies have been performed to evaluate the proteomic blueprint of X and Y spermatozoa to date. Chem. Hum. (1993). List of differentially expressed proteins in X and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa. Mutagen. It has been reported that an uncharacterized (unidentified) gene controlled the ratio of X and Y spermatozoa such that men with more brothers had a higher probability of having sons and those with more sisters had a higher probability of having daughters (Gellatly, 2009); however, these findings are mostly hypothetical, and presence of such a gene has not yet been confirmed. Based on these findings, it is essential to speculate that X and Y spermatozoa can at least be different based on their protein content; however, further studies are warranted to identify the validated markers that could differentiate these two cell types appropriately. They observed that higher serum levels of p,p-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p-DDE) significantly increased the frequency of XX (X sperm disomy), XY, and total sex chromosome disomy. Carvalho et al. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2795(199611)45:3<342::aid-mrd11>3.3.co;2-s, Hoegerman, S. F., Pang, M. G., and Kearns, W. G. (1995). Consistently, tuberculosis was found to be related with the altered functionality of TPI1 that was more highly expresses in X spermatozoa than in Y spermatozoa. 36, 190200. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19990201)35:2<125::aid-cyto3>3.0.co;2-h, Van Opstal, D., Los, F. J., Ramlakhan, S., Van Hemel, J. O., Van Den Ouweland, A. M., Brandenburg, H., et al. Veterinarmed. Anim. (1992). In contrast, majority of these proteomics studies identified limited identical proteins despite the samples being collected from the same animal species (bull). Nuclear morphology of human spermatozoa. doi: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.07.004, Chevret, E., Rousseaux, S., Monteil, M., Pelletier, R., Cozzi, J., and Sele, B. Signaling pathways associated with highly differentiated proteins in X spermatozoa. doi: 10.1093/humrep/12.11.2437, Sarkar, S., Jolly, D. J., Friedmann, T., and Jones, O. W. (1984). Five units of this is X chromosomes so there are 95 units of non-sex chromosomes. Nanoscale Differences in the Shape and Size of X and Y Chromosome The origin and maturation of both X and Y spermatozoa are the same, however, certain differences may exist. Sperm sex ratio (X: Y ratio) and its variations. Mol. Trans. As X and Y spermatozoa differ in their genetic content, their response to stress may differs. Nevertheless, several researchers have suggested that the size of a sperm is not exclusively associated with its chromosomal content and may also be associated with its cytoplasmic content, which may vary in a specific sperm population during spermatogenesis (Shannon and Handel, 1993; Lankenau et al., 1994; Cui, 1997). 45, 342350. Incidence of sperm chromosomal abnormalities in a risk population: relationship with sperm quality and ICSI outcome. Therefore, difference in the X and Y spermatozoa based on the frequency of aneuploidy in X and Y chromosomes remains unclear, which is in accordance with the other reported differences between these sperm types. Relationship between the maturational state of oocytes at the time of insemination and sex ratio of subsequent early bovine embryos. doi: 10.1016/s0093-691x(99)00218-6, Hendriksen, P. J., Tieman, M., Van Der Lende, T., and Johnson, L. A.